If a Clinician Is Particularly Interested in a Client's Family Medical History
Chapter thirteen. Defining Psychological Disorders
13.i Psychological Disorder: What Makes a Behaviour Aberrant?
Learning Objectives
- Define "psychological disorder" and summarize the general causes of disorder.
- Explain why it is so difficult to define disorder, and how the Diagnostic and Statistical Transmission of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used to make diagnoses.
- Describe the stigma of psychological disorders and their impact on those who suffer from them.
The focus of this chapter and the next is, to many people, the heart of psychology. This emphasis on abnormal psychology—the awarding of psychological science to understanding and treating mental disorders— is advisable, as more than psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other endeavor, and these are probably the nigh important tasks psychologists face. In 2012, approximately 2.8 million people, or 10.one% of Canadians aged 15 and older, reported symptoms consistent with at least ane of six mental or substance utilize disorders in the past 12 months (Pearson, Janz, & Ali, 2013). At to the lowest degree a one-half billion people are afflicted worldwide. The 6 disorders measured by the Canadian Mental Health Survey were major depressive episode, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and abuse of or dependence on alcohol, cannabis, or other drugs. The touch on of mental illness is peculiarly stiff on people who are poorer, of lower socioeconomic class, and from disadvantaged ethnic groups.
People with psychological disorders are also stigmatized by the people around them, resulting in shame and embarrassment, as well as prejudice and discrimination against them. Thus the understanding and treatment of psychological disorder has wide implications for the everyday life of many people. Table 13.one, "Prevalence Rates for Psychological Disorders in Canada, 2012," shows the prevalence, the frequency of occurrence of a given condition in a population at a given time, of some of the major psychological disorders in Canada.
In this affiliate our focus is on the disorders themselves. We will review the major psychological disorders and consider their causes and their bear upon on the people who suffer from them. And then in Chapter 14, "Treating Psychological Disorders," nosotros will plow to consider the treatment of these disorders through psychotherapy and drug therapy.
Defining Disorder
A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour that causes significant distress, and that is considered deviant in that person's culture or guild (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Psychological disorders have much in mutual with other medical disorders. They are out of the patient's control, they may in some cases be treated by drugs, and their treatment is often covered by medical insurance. Like medical problems, psychological disorders have both biological (nature) as well as environmental (nurture) influences. These causal influences are reflected in the bio-psycho-social model of affliction (Engel, 1977).
The bio-psycho-social model of illness is a mode of understanding disorder that assumes that disorder is caused by biological, psychological, and social factors (Figure thirteen.one, "The Bio-Psycho-Social Model"). The biological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder that come from the functioning of the private's torso. Particularly of import are genetic characteristics that make some people more vulnerable to a disorder than others and the influence of neurotransmitters. The psychological component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences that come from the individual, such as patterns of negative thinking and stress responses. The social component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the influences on disorder due to social and cultural factors such equally socioeconomic status, homelessness, corruption, and bigotry.
To consider one example, the psychological disorder of schizophrenia has a biological crusade because it is known that at that place are patterns of genes that make a person vulnerable to the disorder (Gejman, Sanders, & Duan, 2010). Just whether or not the person with a biological vulnerability experiences the disorder depends in large office on psychological factors such as how the individual responds to the stress he or she experiences, likewise as social factors such as whether or not the person is exposed to stressful environments in boyhood and whether or non the person has support from people who care about him or her (Sawa & Snyder, 2002; Walker, Kestler, Bollini, & Hochman, 2004). Similarly, mood and feet disorders are caused in part by genetic factors such as hormones and neurotransmitters, in function by the private'southward particular thought patterns, and in part past the ways that other people in the social environment care for the person with the disorder. Nosotros will utilise the bio-psycho-social model every bit a framework for because the causes and treatments of disorder.
Although they share many characteristics with them, psychological disorders are nevertheless different from medical weather condition in important ways. For one, diagnosis of psychological disorders can be more than difficult. Although a medical md can see cancer in the lungs using an MRI scan or see blocked arteries in the center using cardiac catheterization, at that place is no corresponding test for psychological disorder. Current enquiry is beginning to provide more evidence about the function of brain structures in psychological disorder, but for now the brains of people with severe mental disturbances oft expect identical to those of people without such disturbances.
Considering there are no articulate biological diagnoses, psychological disorders are instead diagnosed on the basis of clinical observations of the behaviours that the individual engages in. These observations find that emotional states and behaviours operate on a continuum, ranging from more normal and accepted to more deviant, abnormal, and unaccepted. The behaviours that are associated with disorder are in many cases the same behaviours that nosotros engage in during our normal everyday life. Washing one's hands is a normal good for you activity, but it can be overdone past those with an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It is not unusual to worry about and try to better one's torso prototype. The dancer in Effigy xiii.2, "How Sparse Is Also Sparse?" needs to be thin for her career, merely when does her dieting plough into a psychological disorder? Psychologists believe this happens when the behaviour becomes distressing and dysfunctional to the person. Robert'southward struggle with his personal appearance, as discussed at the beginning of this chapter, was conspicuously unusual, unhealthy, and distressing to him.
Whether a given behaviour is considered a psychological disorder is adamant not only by whether a behaviour is unusual (due east.thousand., whether it is mild anxiety versus extreme feet) but also by whether a behaviour is maladaptive—that is, the extent to which information technology causes distress (due east.g., pain and suffering) and dysfunction (impairment in one or more of import areas of functioning) to the individual (American Psychiatric Clan, 2013). An intense fear of spiders, for case, would non be considered a psychological disorder unless it has a significant negative impact on the sufferer's life, for example by causing him or her to be unable to step outside the house. The focus on distress and dysfunction means that behaviours that are only unusual (such as some political, religious, or sexual practices) are not classified as disorders.
Put your psychology hat on for a moment and consider the behaviours of the people listed in Table xiii.ii, "Diagnosing Disorder." For each, indicate whether you think the behaviour is or is not a psychological disorder. If yous're not sure, what other information would yous need to know to be more certain of your diagnosis?
| [Skip Tabular array] | |||
| Aye | No | Need more information | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jackie oft talks to herself while she is working out her math homework. Her roommate sometimes hears her and wonders if she is okay. | |||
| Charlie believes that the noises made by cars and planes going by outside his business firm have secret meanings. He is convinced that he was involved in the first of a nuclear state of war and that the simply style for him to survive is to observe the answer to a difficult riddle. | |||
| Harriet gets very depressed during the winter months when the light is depression. She sometimes stays in her pajamas for the whole weekend, eating chocolate and watching Idiot box. | |||
| Frank seems to be afraid of a lot of things. He worries about driving on the highway and almost astringent weather that may come through his neighbourhood. Only mostly he fears mice, checking under his bed often to run across if whatever are present. | |||
| A worshiper speaking in "tongues" at an Evangelical church building views himself as "filled" with the Holy Spirit and is considered blest with the gift to speak the "language of angels." | |||
A trained clinical psychologist would take checked off "need more information" for each of the examples in Table thirteen.2, "Diagnosing Disorder," because although the behaviours may seem unusual, at that place is no clear evidence that they are sorry or dysfunctional for the person. Talking to ourselves out loud is unusual and can be a symptom of schizophrenia, but just because we do information technology one time in a while does non mean that there is anything incorrect with us. Information technology is natural to be depressed, specially in the long winter nights, but how severe should this depression exist, and how long should it last? If the negative feelings final for an extended time and begin to lead the person to miss work or classes, then they may get symptoms of a mood disorder. It is normal to worry almost things, merely when does worry turn into a debilitating anxiety disorder? And what about thoughts that seem to be irrational, such as beingness able to speak the linguistic communication of angels? Are they indicators of a severe psychological disorder, or function of a normal religious experience? Again, the answer lies in the extent to which they are (or are not) interfering with the private's performance in club.
Another difficulty in diagnosing psychological disorders is that they frequently occur together. For instance, people diagnosed with anxiety disorders also oft have mood disorders (Hunt, Slade, & Andrews, 2004), and people diagnosed with one personality disorder frequently suffer from other personality disorders too. Comorbidity occurs when people who suffer from one disorder besides suffer at the same fourth dimension from other disorders. Because many psychological disorders are comorbid, nearly severe mental disorders are concentrated in a modest group of people (about half dozen% of the population) who have more than than three of them (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).
Psychology in Everyday Life: Combating the Stigma of Abnormal Behaviour
Every culture and society has its own views on what constitutes aberrant behaviour and what causes information technology (Brothwell, 1981). The Old Testament Book of Samuel tells us that as a consequence of his sins, God sent King Saul an evil spirit to torment him (1 Samuel 16:14). Ancient Hindu tradition attributed psychological disorder to sorcery and witchcraft. During the Middle Ages it was believed that mental affliction occurred when the body was infected by evil spirits, particularly the devil. Remedies included whipping, bloodletting, purges, and trepanation (cutting a hole in the skull, Figure 13.three) to release the demons.
Until the 18th century, the most common handling for the mentally ill was to incarcerate them in asylums or "madhouses." During the 18th century, notwithstanding, some reformers began to oppose this brutal handling of the mentally ill, arguing that mental illness was a medical problem that had nothing to do with evil spirits or demons. In France, i of the cardinal reformers was Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), who believed that mental disease was caused by a combination of physical and psychological stressors, exacerbated by inhumane conditions. Pinel advocated the introduction of practice, fresh air, and daylight for the inmates, likewise as treating them gently and talking with them.
Reformers such as Phillipe Pinel (1745-1826), Dorothea Dix (1802-1887), Richard Thou. Bucke (1837-1902), Charles G. Clarke (1857-1924), Clifford W. Beers (1876-1943), and Clarence M. Hincks (1885-1964) were instrumental in creating mental hospitals that treated patients humanely and attempted to cure them if possible (Figure thirteen.five). These reformers saw mental disease equally an underlying psychological disorder, which was diagnosed according to its symptoms and which could be cured through treatment.
Dr Richard Bucke was appointed superintendent of the Asylum for the Insane in Hamilton in 1876 and a year later of the aviary in London, Ontario. He believed mental disease was a failure of the human biological adaptive process. In his attempts to reform the rough treatment of mentally sick patients he abandoned the practise of pacifying the inmates with alcohol or restraining them, and inaugurated regular cultural and sports events for patients.
Dr Charles Clarke was an assistant superintendent at the Hamilton asylum in the early 1880s, and later superintendent of the asylum at Kingston, Ontario. By 1887 he had changed the asylum from a jail to a hospital and was instructing nurses and attendants in the care of the mentally ill. Past 1893 he was advocating that the term "asylum" be dropped and that special hospitals be constructed for the mentally sick.
Dr Clarence Hincks, built-in in St Mary's, Ontario, was interested in mental health partly due to his own experiences with severe low. In 1918, with Beers's assist, he organized the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, which afterwards became the Canadian Mental Health Clan.
Dix was a Massachusetts schoolteacher who wrote, lectured, and informed the public and legislators about the deplorable conditions in mental institutions like those shown in Figure 13.4. She was successful in influencing a number of state legislatures either to establish or ameliorate their mental institutions, and because of her efforts a mental infirmary was built in St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1885. She also lobbied the Nova Scotia legislature and oversaw the building of a infirmary for mental patients in that province.
Phillipe Pinel was a French physician who became intensely interested in mental health in the 1770s. He took a psychological approach as opposed to the prominent biological approach that was the custom and introduced new forms of treatments that involved close contact with and careful observation of patients. Pinel visited each patient upward to several times a day, engaging them in lengthy conversations, and took conscientious notes in an effort to get together a detailed case history and a natural history of the patient's affliction. At the time, his therapy was quite contrary to the usual practices of haemorrhage, purging, or baking.
Despite the progress made since the 1800s in public attitudes nearly those who endure from psychological disorders, people, including police, coworkers, and fifty-fifty friends and family members, still stigmatize people with psychological disorders. A stigma refers to a disgrace or defect that indicates that person belongs to a culturally devalued social grouping. In some cases the stigma of mental illness is accompanied by the use of disrespectful and dehumanizing labels, including names such as crazy, nuts, mental, schizo, and retard.
The stigma of mental disorder affects people while they are ill, while they are healing, and even later on they accept healed (Schefer, 2003). On a customs level, stigma can impact the kinds of services social service agencies requite to people with mental illness, and the treatment provided to them and their families past schools, workplaces, places of worship, and health-care providers. Stigma about mental illness also leads to employment discrimination, despite the fact that with appropriate back up, even people with severe psychological disorders are able to hold a task (Boardman, Grove, Perkins, & Shepherd, 2003; Leff & Warner, 2006; Ozawa & Yaeda, 2007; Pulido, Diaz, & Ramirez, 2004).
The mass media has a significant influence on society'due south attitude toward mental affliction (Francis, Pirkis, Dunt, & Blood, 2001). While media portrayal of mental affliction is oft sympathetic, negative stereotypes nevertheless remain in newspapers, magazines, picture, and telly. (See the post-obit video for an 
instance.)
Television advertisements may perpetuate negative stereotypes well-nigh the mentally sick. For example, in 2010 Burger King ran an advertizement called "The King's Gone Crazy," in which the company'south mascot runs around an role complex carrying out acts of violence and wreaking havoc.
Picket: "Burger King: The King's Gone Crazy" [YouTube]: http://www.youtube.com/spotter?5=xYA7AnVwejo
The most significant trouble of the stigmatization of those with psychological disorder is that it slows their recovery. People with mental problems internalize societal attitudes nigh mental disease, often condign then embarrassed or ashamed that they conceal their difficulties and fail to seek handling. Stigma leads to lowered self-esteem, increased isolation, and hopelessness, and it may negatively influence the individual'southward family and professional life (Hayward & Brilliant, 1997).
Despite all of these challenges, however, many people overcome psychological disorders and go on to lead productive lives. It is up to all of the states who are informed about the causes of psychological disorder and the impact of these weather on people to empathize, first, that mental illness is not a "error" whatsoever more is cancer. People exercise not choose to have a mental illness. 2nd, we must all piece of work to help overcome the stigma associated with disorder. Organizations such every bit the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) assist by working to reduce the negative impact of stigma through pedagogy, community action, and individual support.
Diagnosing Disorder: The DSM
Psychologists take developed criteria that assistance them determine whether behaviour should exist considered a psychological disorder and which of the many disorders particular behaviours indicate. These criteria are laid out in a ane,000-page manual known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) , a document that provides a mutual language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM is used by therapists, researchers, drug companies, health insurance companies, and policymakers in Canada and the United States to determine what services are appropriately provided for treating patients with given symptoms.
The outset edition of the DSM was published in 1952 on the basis of demography information and psychiatric hospital statistics. Since then, the DSM has been revised five times. The last major revision was the fourth edition (DSM-IV), published in 1994, and an update of that document was produced in 2000 (DSM-IV-TR). The fifth edition (DSM-5) is the most contempo edition and was published in 2013. The Medical Council of Canada transitioned to the DSM-five recently (MCC, 2013). The DSM-IV-TR was designed in conjunction with the World Health Organization's 10th version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which is used equally a guide for mental disorders in Europe and other parts of the world.
The DSM does not attempt to specify the exact symptoms that are required for a diagnosis. Rather, the DSM uses categories, and patients whose symptoms are similar to the clarification of the category are said to have that disorder. The DSM frequently uses qualifiers to point unlike levels of severity within a category. For example, an intellectual inability tin be classified as mild, moderate, astringent, or profound.
Each revision of the DSM takes into consideration new knowledge equally well as changes in cultural norms about disorder. Homosexuality, for case, was listed as a mental disorder in the DSM until 1973, when it was removed in response to advocacy by politically active gay rights groups and irresolute social norms. The current version of the DSM lists nigh 400 disorders.
Although the DSM has been criticized regarding the nature of its categorization system (and it is oftentimes revised to try to address these criticisms), for the fact that information technology tends to allocate more behaviours as disorders with every revision (even "academic problems" are at present listed equally a potential psychological disorder), and for the fact that it is primarily focused on Western affliction, it is nevertheless a comprehensive, practical, and necessary tool that provides a common linguistic communication to describe disorder. Virtually insurance companies will not pay for therapy unless the patient has a DSM diagnosis. The DSM approach allows a systematic assessment of the patient, taking into account the mental disorder in question, the patient'due south medical condition, psychological and cultural factors, and the manner the patient functions in everyday life.
Diagnosis or Overdiagnosis? ADHD, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger's Disorder
Two common critiques of the DSM are that the categorization organization leaves quite a bit of ambiguity in diagnosis and that information technology covers such a wide variety of behaviours. Allow's have a closer look at three mutual disorders —attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autistic disorder, and Asperger'south disorder— that have recently raised controversy because they are being diagnosed significantly more frequently than they were in the past.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Zack, aged seven years, has e'er had trouble settling downward. He is easily bored and distracted. In school, he cannot stay in his seat for very long and he frequently does not follow instructions. He is constantly fidgeting or staring into space. Zack has poor social skills and may overreact when someone accidentally bumps into him or uses ane of his toys. At home, he chatters constantly and rarely settles downwardly to practice a quiet activity, such as reading a book.
Symptoms such every bit Zack's are common among seven-year-olds, and particularly amidst boys. Just what practice the symptoms mean? Does Zack simply have a lot of free energy and a short attention span? Boys mature more slowly than girls at this age, and perhaps Zack volition catch upwardly in the next few years. One possibility is for the parents and teachers to work with Zack to aid him be more attentive, to put up with the behaviour, and to wait it out.
But many parents, often on the communication of the child's teacher, take their children to a psychologist for diagnosis. If Zack were taken for testing today, it is very likely that he would exist diagnosed with a psychological disorder known equally attending-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental behaviour disorder characterized by bug with focus, difficulty maintaining attention, and disability to concentrate, in which symptoms start before 7 years of age (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2014). Although it is commonly first diagnosed in childhood, ADHD can remain problematic in adults, and up to 7% of university students are diagnosed with it (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). In adults the symptoms of ADHD include forgetfulness, difficulty paying attention to details, procrastination, disorganized work habits, and not listening to others. ADHD is about lxx% more probable to occur in males than in females (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005), and is frequently comorbid with other behavioural and conduct disorders.
The diagnosis of ADHD has quadrupled over the past 20 years, and it is at present diagnosed in virtually i out of every 37 Canadian children. Information technology is the most common psychological disorder amongst children in the world (Olfson, Gameroff, Marcus, & Jensen, 2003). ADHD is also being diagnosed much more frequently in adolescents and adults (Barkley, 1998). You might wonder what this all means. Are the increases in the diagnosis of ADHD considering today'southward children and adolescents are actually more distracted and hyperactive than their parents were, due to a greater awareness of ADHD among teachers and parents, or due to psychologists and psychiatrists' tendency to overdiagnose the problem? Peradventure drug companies are likewise involved, considering ADHD is frequently treated with prescription medications, including stimulants such as Ritalin.
Although skeptics argue that ADHD is overdiagnosed and is a handy excuse for behavioural problems, near psychologists believe that ADHD is a real disorder that is acquired by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Twin studies accept establish that ADHD is heritable (National Constitute of Mental Wellness, 2010), and neuroimaging studies have constitute that people with ADHD may take structural differences in areas of the brain that influence self-control and attention (Seidman, Valera, & Makris, 2005). Other studies have as well pointed to environmental factors, such every bit a mother'southward smoking and drinking booze during pregnancy and the consumption of lead and food additives past those who are affected (Braun, Kahn, Froehlich, Auinger, & Lanphear, 2006; Linnet et al., 2003; McCann et al., 2007). Social factors, such equally family stress and poverty, also contribute to ADHD (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001).
Autistic Disorder and Asperger's Disorder
Jared's kindergarten instructor has voiced her concern to Jared's parents virtually his difficulties with interacting with other children and his delay in developing normal language. Jared is able to maintain eye contact and enjoys mixing with other children, but he cannot communicate with them very well. He often responds to questions or comments with long-winded speeches most trucks or some other topic that interests him, and he seems to lack awareness of other children'south wishes and needs.
Jared'south concerned parents took him to a multidisciplinary kid development centre for consultation. Here he was tested by a pediatric neurologist, a psychologist, and a child psychiatrist.
The pediatric neurologist establish that Jared'due south hearing was normal, and there were no signs of whatever neurological disorder. He diagnosed Jared with a pervasive developmental disorder, because while his comprehension and expressive language was poor, he was still able to acquit out nonverbal tasks, such equally drawing a moving-picture show or doing a puzzle.
Based on her observation of Jared's difficulty interacting with his peers, and the fact that he did not respond warmly to his parents, the psychologist diagnosed Jared with autistic disorder (autism), a disorder of neural evolution characterized past impaired social interaction and communication and past restricted and repetitive behaviour, and in which symptoms begin before 7 years of age. The psychologist believed that the autism diagnosis was correct because, similar other children with autism, Jared, has a poorly developed power to see the world from the perspective of others, engages in unusual behaviours such as talking virtually trucks for hours, and responds to stimuli, such as the audio of a car or an aeroplane, in unusual means.
The child psychiatrist believed that Jared'due south language bug and social skills were non astringent plenty to warrant a diagnosis of autistic disorder and instead proposed a diagnosis of Asperger's disorder, a developmental disorder that affects a child'south ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others and in which symptoms begin before seven years of age. The symptoms of Asperger's are almost identical to that of autism (with the exception of a delay in language development), and the child psychiatrist but saw these bug as less extreme.
Imagine how Jared'due south parents must take felt at this betoken. Clearly in that location is something wrong with their kid, but even the experts cannot agree on exactly what the trouble is. Diagnosing issues such equally Jared's is difficult, nonetheless the number of children like him is increasing dramatically. Disorders related to autism and Asperger's disorder now touch 0.68% of Canadian children (Statistics Canada, 2003). The milder forms of autism, and especially Asperger'south, have deemed for most of this increment in diagnosis.
Although for many years autism was thought to be primarily a socially determined disorder, in which parents who were cold, afar, and rejecting created the problem, current research suggests that biological factors are most important. The heritability of autism has been estimated to be equally high as 90% (Freitag, 2007). Scientists speculate that autism is caused by an unknown genetically determined encephalon abnormality that occurs early in development. It is likely that several unlike brain sites are affected (Moldin, 2003), and the search for these areas is being conducted in many scientific laboratories.
But does Jared accept autism or Asperger's? The trouble is that diagnosis is not exact (remember the idea of categories), and the experts themselves are often unsure how to classify behaviour. Furthermore, the appropriate classifications change with fourth dimension and new cognition. Under the DSM-5, released on May eighteen, 2013, Asperger's Syndrome is now subsumed under the category of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Cardinal Takeaways
- More than psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other try, and those tasks are probably the well-nigh important psychologists confront.
- The affect on people with a psychological disorder comes both from the disease itself and from the stigma associated with disorder.
- A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of idea, emotion, and behaviour that causes significant distress and that is considered deviant in that person's civilisation or society.
- According to the bio-psycho-social model, psychological disorders have biological, psychological, and social causes.
- It is difficult to diagnose psychological disorders, although the DSM provides guidelines that are based on a category organization. The DSM is oftentimes revised, taking into consideration new knowledge every bit well as changes in cultural norms about disorder.
- There is controversy about the diagnosis of disorders such as ADHD, autistic disorder, and Asperger's disorder.
Exercises and Critical Thinking
- Do y'all or your friends concur stereotypes nearly the mentally ill? Can you think of or find clips from any films or other pop media that portray mental illness positively or negatively? Is it more or less acceptable to stereotype the mentally sick than to stereotype other social groups?
- Consider the diagnosis of ADHD, autism, and Asperger'south disorder from the biological, personal, and social-cultural perspectives. Exercise you lot think that these disorders are overdiagnosed? How might clinicians determine if ADHD is dysfunctional or distressing to the individual?
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Weyandt, L. L., & DuPaul, Thousand. (2006). ADHD in higher students.Journal of Attention Disorders, ten(1), 9–19.
Epitome Attributions
Effigy thirteen.1: "beautiful-dancer-past-aisha-mitchell" by Gerard Van der Leun is licensed under CC By-NC-ND ii.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/past-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en_CA).
Figure xiii.3: Engraving of a trepanation past Peter Treveris (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Treveris_-_ engraving_of_Trepanation_for_Handywarke_of_surgeri_1525.png) is in public domain.
Figure 13.4: Sheriff Hill Lunatic Asylum by U.S. Library of Congress, (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sheriff_Hill_Lunatic_Asylum.jpg) is in the public domain.
Figure 13.5: Philippe Pinel portrait by Anna Mérimée (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philippe_Pinel_%281745_-_1826%29.jpg) is in the public domain. Benjamin Rush Painting by Charles Wilson Peale (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg) is in the public domain. Dix Dorothea portrait by U.S. Library of Congress, (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dix-Dorothea-LOC.jpg) is in the public domain.
Long Descriptions
| Disorder | Lifetime | 12-calendar month | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Substance apply disorder | Booze abuse or dependence | eighteen.i% | 3.2% |
| Cannabis corruption or dependence | half-dozen.8% | one.iii% | |
| Other drug abuse or dependence (excluding Cannabis) | 4% | 0.7% | |
| Total substance use disorders | 21.6% | 4.4% | |
| Mood Disorder | Major Depressive Episode | 11.3% | 4.7% |
| Bipolar disorder | 2.6% | i.5% | |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | 8.7% | ii.6% | |
| Total mood disorders | 12.six% | v.iv% | |
| Total Mental/Substance disorders | 33.1% | 10.1% | |
[Render to Table xiii.ane]
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/12-1-psychological-disorder-what-makes-a-behavior-abnormal/
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